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Revision about minors trafficked for exploitation in criminal activities. Forensic Science Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “‘Little Rascals’ or Not-So-
Ideal Victims: Dealing with minors trafficked for exploitation in criminal activities in the Netherlands”, by Breuil, B. O. (2021), in which the author revises the problem of minor trafficked in criminal activities in the Netherlands’ context.

We know that one of the great scourges in our society that still exists today is human trafficking. The best known is trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation, which drags millions and millions of people to cruel destinations, from which it is very difficult to get out.

However, there is also trafficking for criminal purposes, where the majority of victims are, once
again, the most vulnerable people: children and teenagers.

In the Netherlands, the context of this study, the defended idea is that the interests of minors should
be guaranteed in these types of cases, and that victims of trafficking should not be held responsible
or punished for the crimes they were forced to commit. However, society often regards these
punishments as deserved and fair.

So are front-line actors (police and authority figures) prepared to identify and deal with these cases?

This topic is discussed in the research carried out by the author in 2015 and 2016, about children
and young people exploited in criminal activities in the Netherlands.

At the time it was carried out, only five cases had been successfully tried in court. And although the
visibility of the phenomenon has increased in recent years, it is unfortunately a form of trafficking
that remains under-researched, in the Netherlands but also in the rest of the world.

The objective of the article is, therefore, to contribute to filling this gap, providing ideas that may be
relevant to public institutions for child protection.

The research revolves around two questions: first, what knowledge exists about the phenomenon, its
definition, characteristics, the profiles of the perpetrators and victims, and so on. On the other hand,
some cases were investigated in order to explore the different manifestations of the phenomenon.

One of the problems posed by this criminal typology is the reduced amount of literature on it. Based
on the limited data that exist, the most common crimes in this context would be: pickpocketing,
forced begging, robbery, shoplifting, illegal street vending or drug trafficking. Regarding the first four activities, there is a strong emphasis on research on Roma children, from Central and Eastern Europe, as the main victims of this exploitation.

However, the author mentions that we need to be skeptical about the “ethnitization” of the
phenomenon. The most important thing in the victimization of minors for these crimes are the
socioeconomic disadvantages of their families, living in segregated, impoverished and crime-prone
neighborhoods, with sick, unemployed parents, that sometimes can be alcohol or drug users. There
is no reason for children of other ethnic groups living in similar circumstances to not be victimized:
it is not about race, but about disadvantaged living conditions. This also has negative consequences on parents and the Roma culture, who are perceived as perpetrators.

A very interesting aspect that should be considered is that the assumptions about how the victims
should be, dissuade the authorities from granting the status of victim to minors who do not fit this
ideal, since there is a belief that these minors arrived with their families to the host country to enjoy
its social benefits, being this an assumption that can impair their ability to see them as victims.
In other words, although they may be identified as victims of trafficking for criminal purposes, this
does not guarantee that they are actually recognized as such, due to the stigmatization they suffer.

There is also a cognitive bias that makes it easier to consider women victims than men. Some of the
authority figures interviewed for the author’s study observed that the possibility of girls being
trafficked is more obvious.

On the other hand, it is difficult for cases of exploitation of minors for criminal activities to reach
the courts. According to the investigation, it is because at some point in the investigation of the
crime, the idea is lost, it is no longer considered trafficking.

Sometimes it happens because professionals prefer not to label the case as human trafficking in an
official way, in order to be as objective as possible and interpret the facts from a neutral role.

At other times, it is considered that labeling a case as human trafficking might not be in the best
interest and well-being of the child. This follows the argument that, in some cases, legally qualifying facts as a consequence of trafficking avoids addressing the structural causes (political, economic and social), to the benefit of punitive criminal justice reactions.

In other words, prosecuting and imprisoning parents for trafficking their children can have serious
consequences for children and worsen their living conditions. An intervention aimed at protecting
them, supporting parents in raising children, improving their living conditions, would produce
better results.

These combined efforts could pave the way for better identification of the trafficking of minors for
exploitation in criminal activities, and ensure that children’s rights are respected, including the right
to not be punished for crimes they were forced to commit. It would also be necessary to address
economic, social, cultural and gender inequalities, while keeping the best interests of children in the
spotlight.

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Cybercrime

Brief analysis of cybercrime in social networks. Forensic Science Club

By 4 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Analysis of Cybercrime on Social Media Platforms and Its Challenges”, by Almansoori, A.; Abdallah, S.; Alshamsi, M. and Salloum, S. A. (2021), in which authors carry out an analysis of crimes that have been committed in the last few years and that are closely related to the development of technologies, internet and social networks.  

Cyberspace has reached every part of the planet, and is like a universe accessible from every corner of the globe. 

Advances in cybersecurity, technology and methods to protect software, networks and data associated with computers, have managed to prevent millions of attacks from malicious individuals and, in general, cybercriminals. 

Shockingly, the greatest cybersecurity efforts do not completely prevent cyberattacks, and so the need to remain vigilant and protect against these activities has become increasingly important in recent years.

This may seem simple, but a factor that makes this task extremely difficult comes into play, which, moreover, is an unprecedented phenomenon: social networks. 

We can define them as a group of Internet applications that allow the creation and exchange of content generated by different users. LinkedIn, YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat… help to build social relationships and online communities that can become very strong, which is considered a valuable asset for many purposes. 

They provide many novel opportunities for socializing and interacting with users that have redefined the previously known approach to information sharing: from publicly expressing opinions, to news circulation, to online business or advertising. All of this, due to the global presence of the Internet, allows content to reach as many parts of the world as possible. 

And, as good as this is, it has a dark and dangerous side: people become easy and obvious targets for cybercriminals through social networks. 

To safeguard the integrity and security of individuals, organizations are constantly increasing technology and security budgets so that these social networks can be protected in a way that seals the information available from them. 

This research aimed to understand the characteristics of the crimes being committed through the Internet and social networks, and to identify what kind of efforts the police should make to control them. What types of attacks and crimes are occurring? What are the demographics of the majority of offenders? 

Authors conducted an analysis of different social networking platforms focusing on threats and offenses, arriving at 574 observations. Each of these observations was identified with a person suspected of having committed any form of cybercrime on these social networks. Cases were counted from 2014 to 2018. 

Most crimes occurred in 2018, with 28.1% of the total; then 2015 with 20.1%. According to the data, there were 300 cases of fraud, 100 cases approximately of child pornography, and other statistically less relevant crimes, such as stalking or grooming. 

Most of the offenders were found to have prior criminal records. About 70% had a prior record for some crime, while 30% did not. 

As for the educational background of the suspects, they had little formal education, about 70% had only basic education, and 30% had graduated from some form of higher education. 

About 61% of the offenders came from very poor backgrounds, while those from middle and upper class constituted the remaining 39%. 

On the other hand, most offenders were between 20 and 25 years old, with a significant peak at 22 years old. 

Online social networking sites must identify the core aspects of human and social connectivity through accurate and robust methodologies that ensure privacy, protection and build trust between the platform and the user at all times. 

Governments, along with intelligence services, must be trained to adopt and frame the technologies. The amount of data flowing in social networks must be analyzed in a very rigorous way. 

Another important point is the awareness of the individual, as people must be responsible with the content they share and the social networks they use. 

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Criminal profiling

Homicide Profiles Based on Crime Scene and Victim Characteristics. Forensic Science Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Homicide Profiles Based on Crime Scene and Victim Characteristics” by Pecino-Latorre, M. M.; Pérez-Fuentes, M. C. and Patró-Hernández, R. M., in which authors try to identify the homicides characteristics based on observed behaviors at the crime scene and the victim.

Criminal profiling is a very complex field of study that has been object of interest of many experts during the last years, due to its efficacy when it’s about solving crimes.

And as complex as criminal profiling is the area in which its application is the most important and spectacular: homicide cases.

Homicide cases have gained considerable academic and professional interest, not only because is the most violent of the criminal behaviors but also because they have enormous impact on the victim’s relatives and, besides, the whole society.

These cases are extremely difficult since it is a criminal category that includes distinct variants with dynamic characteristics and specific psychological processes related to the criminal, the victim, the context of both, etcetera; and this is hard to investigate.

That is why in previous research, studying each case independently has been recommended: examine specific aspects, their details, instead of seeking out general associations.

There is an approach that has become more important in the past few years, in which the idea of the traditional criminal profiler changes. It is suggested that from now on, the profiler could try to base the criminal’s profile on elements of the crime that allow him/her to create hypothesis of what are the criminal’s potential characteristics, thus a more rigorous suspect prioritization is possible.

Some authors from previous research have focused on analyzing the differences in modus operandi according to the perpetrator’s gender. For example, it was found that men tend to kill more women and people they know, whereas women use to kill more frequently members of their families.

Regarding the crime weapon, men are more likely to use firearms, while women tend to use suffocation methods on their victims.

Other interesting data that authors mention, is that it has been observed that, in the case of perpetrators who previously knew their victims, there tends to be a greater number and seriousness of injuries, with the homicides tending o take place indoors and most often using bladed weapons or blunt objects.

Namely, there are lots of studies where it has been shown that it is useful to study details and elements of the homicide to infer the criminal’s characteristics. Because of that, authors of this paper wondered which data of the crime, of the behavior observed in the crime scene and in the victims, are associated with the perpetrator of simple homicide in Spain, which is the place in which the study took place.

The study included a total sample of 448 cases of simple homicide that were studied using statistics software. The 90,8% were committed by men. A 9,2%, by women.

Obtained results are consistent with the central postulate of criminal profiling, that is, on the basis of homicide elements –crime scene, modus operandi, victim characteristics– it is possible to hypothesize about the potential characteristics of the perpetrator, which helps make decisions to establish more rigorous suspect prioritization.

Some of the data obtained in the study were, firstly, that there is a greater probability that the perpetrator will be female when the victim is a minor and when suffocation methods are used to commit the homicide. Plus, women would be more associated with intra-family homicides and the most common victims would be their children.

We see how the results agree so far with previous studies.

Research also shows that there is a greater probability that the aggressor is Spanish when the victims also are –remember the study was made in Spain–, just as it is more likely for the perpetrator to be a foreigner when the victim is also a foreigner.

As for the existence of a criminal record, the results suggest that perpetrators with a criminal record tend to use precautionary measures to avoid identification. Similarly, perpetrators with a criminal record commit more homicides in outdoor locations. Moreover, perpetrators with a record of violent crimes and sexual aggressions are more likely to have victims aged between 19 and 35.

Authors point out that some limitations exist. For instance, the conclusions derived from the study cannot be generalized to other types of homicides, since only simple homicides and those with perpetrators over the age of 18 were considered. In addition, the database did not include detailed information on the scene of the crimes, location of injuries, or circumstances in which the cadaver was found, so future studies should include these variables.

This investigation shows how important is to pay attention to victimology. It is essential in criminal investigation, due to victim characteristics, modus operandi, crime scene, etcetera, give us very powerful information about perpetrators.

Authors sum up with the idea that results are based in empirical evidence, thus future research should go also in this direction, correcting the limitations in this paper.

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Growing up in single-parent families and the criminal involvement of adolescents. Forensic Science Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Growing up in single-parent families and the criminal involvement of adolescents: a systematic review”, by Kroese, J.; Bernasco, W.; Liefbroer, A. C. y Rouwendal, J. (2021), in which authors make a revision of the existing literature about the consequences of growing up in a single-parent family, with special attention to the bonding with crime. 

Many children grow up in single parent families; in fact, according to statistics, the number of families with only one biological father present has increased in Western countries in the past few years.

Growing up in a family of this kind, usually occurs because it has previously gone through a separation, divorce, death of one of the parents, etcetera. However, this last case is the least common, since the percentage of single-parent families due to divorce, separation and single mothers is increasing.

Authors consider that, observing the increasement of the statistics regarding the existence of this type of family, the consequences of growing up in that context should be studied.

Previous research has suggested that growing up in a single parent family has negative effects on children’s emotional well-being, as well as on their cognitive development and school performance. In addition, behavior control problems or anxiety have been reported in children belonging to these families.

These studies point to the divorce as a very important factor, identified as a stressor for children.

What about crime? Being associated with crime during adolescence has been suggested to be a risk factor for young people who have grown up in families with only one parent present. This is also associated with poorer health and well-being and a greater likelihood of continuing criminal activities in adulthood.

However, even though there is not a large amount of literature about young people from single-parent families and their relationship with crime, the links between crime and young people in general have been studied on numerous occasions.

There is the theory of social control, which suggests that adolescents participate in crime because they have a lack of affective bonds with their parents, a lack of commitment to the rules, do not engage in conventional activities and do not develop the belief of the rules deserving respect.

For example, if there are very weak bonds with parents, children and young people may feel more stimulated by spending time in criminogenic environments rather than with their parents.

There is also the family crisis model. This model suggests that family disruptions are important determinants of children’s well-being. For example, experiencing divorce or separation from parents causes psychological stress, emotional resentment, and social tension in children.

Consequently, emotional resentment in children could decrease the level of family bonding and increase the child’s criminal behavior.

On the other hand, this same model maintains that experiencing the death of one of the parents causes anxiety, emotional stress and depression.

Therefore, it seems coherent to suggest that, according to this model, criminal behavior is more likely to appear in young people who belong to single-parent families who have experienced divorce or separation, rather than in young people from single-parent families due to the death of one of the parents.

However, this is only a small part of the existing literature. Authors carry out their own study, researching articles on the subject. Finally, the sample number was 48.

Conclusions are interesting: first, it appears that being a crime-related adolescent and being born and raised in a single-parent family are closely related facts; second, only one study reports the effects of each of the different reasons for the appearance of single-parent families as criminogenic factors for young people, so it is clear that more research is needed.

Regarding the first question, the vast majority of the articles studied, report a positive relationship between both ideas.

It was found that in a study conducted with reports on juvenile convictions, it is suggested that adolescents from single-parent families due to divorce or separation showed higher levels of delinquency than adolescents from single-parent families due to the death of one of the parents.

This finding is consistent with the expectations of the family crisis model. Although, this and other theories mentioned in the article are not enough to fully explain this phenomenon.

Therefore, there are limitations. For example, almost all adolescent behavioral data was self-reported. It is possible that for this reason, there is an underestimation of the real levels of crime. On the other hand, in almost 30% of the studies only children were included as participants.

There are several suggestions for future research, such as conducting the studies in contexts other than the United States.

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Criminology

Crimes committed by people with intellectual disabilities: which is the most common? Forensic Science Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Crimes and sentences in individuals with intellectual disability in a forensic psychiatric context: a register-based study”, by Edberg, H.; Chen, Q.; Andiné, P.; Larsson, H. and Hirvikoski, T. (2022), in which authors carry out a study to know what are the crimes committed by people with intellectual disabilities and their comparison with the ones committed by people with a typical intellectual development. 

People with intellectual disabilities who commit crimes have a judicial status, characteristics and needs that concern most of the developed countries.

These people are an important group, but still small and not well recognized. The prevalence of diagnosed intellectual disability (hereinafter ID) in the general population is approximately 1%, and those who commit criminal offenses make up a small number of that percentage.

Whether or not people with ID are at increased risk of committing crimes is unclear based on the current literature. There are experts who support the idea and others who don’t, since it has not been confirmed.

In recent years, several patterns have been proposed regarding the typology of crimes committed by people with ID. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of sexually inappropriate behavior and, therefore, of sexual offenses.

This generalization, however, needs to be studied, as the samples used for these studies have been small and the proposed definitions of intellectual disability inconsistent.

Most developed countries have criminal legislation in which offenders will not be responsible for their crimes if they suffer from some type of mental pathology, and under certain conditions. They are considered, for example, unable to stand trial, or not guilty by reason of insanity.

Meeting the special needs of these people, providing them with adequate rehabilitation and combining this with public safety, is a complicated task for which a plurality of options is needed. Authors argue that neither prison nor hospital orders are ideal. Community sanctions and other measures, defined as non-prison sentences, such as probation, have steadily increased in European countries. However, the prevalence of people with ID in prison systems is approximately 2-10%.

Sweden considers that offenders with serious mental disorders can be held responsible for their actions. However, the court may order a pre-trial forensic psychiatric evaluation to decide whether an offender suffers from a severe mental disorder, thus sentencing the offender to forensic psychiatric care rather than prison.

The main objective of this study was to study the typology of crimes in people with ID and without ID who were subject to a pre-trial forensic psychiatric evaluation, in the Swedish context. 

The study was observational and based on records of all persons undergoing forensic psychiatric evaluation in Sweden from January 1st, 1997, to May 30th, 2013. The final study population was 7,450 individuals.

Crimes were classified into four categories: sexual crimes, violent crimes, non-sexual violent crimes, and non-sexual non-violent crimes.

Sex crimes included rape, sexual coercion, child abuse, indecent exposure, sexual harassment, child pornography, among others.

Violent crimes included homicide, assault, robbery, arson, unlawful threats, or intimidation….

Non-sexual violent crimes excluded all sexual crimes from the category of violent crimes.

Finally, non-violent non-sexual crimes included all those that did not fit into the previous categories.

The results indicated that sexual offenses were more common among people with ID than without ID. 26% of ID offenders had committed a sexual offense, compared to 15% in the non-ID group. Violent crimes were equally frequent among both groups.

Several explanations for these data have been proposed. For example, the lack of knowledge and sexual education. It has been shown that people with ID have lower levels of sexual knowledge than their peers without ID, raising the issue of sex education as a preventive measure for this type of crime.

On the other hand, the modeling hypothesis appears as a result of previous sexual abuse. It arises from the idea that prior victimization is a common circumstance among sexual aggressors, moreover, people with ID are at greater risk of being victims of this type of crime.

There is also a lack of social integration, closely related to the idea that sex offenders in general may lack a prosocial identity.

Authors propose investing resources and time in structured and specialized treatment programs for these people, in addition to investigating the forms of rehabilitation and habilitation of forensic psychiatric care that they receive.

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Can we consider lone terrorists and mass murderers as similar criminals? Forensic Science Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Similar cimes, similar behaviors? Comparing lone-actor terrorists and public mass murderers” by Gill, P.; Silver, J.; Horgan, J.; Corner, E. and Bouhana, N. (2021), in which authors wonder whether enough similarities between lone terrorists and mass murderers exist so we can consider them as similar criminals.

The study of public mass murders and lone terrorists has emerged independently as two distinct research fields in the past few years.

Previous studies about solitary terrorists (or lone wolves, as they have been called many times) suggested that they needed some kind of political, religious or social objective. Similar studies of mass murderers focused on their mental health history and precipitating events, or triggers.

But, after these studies, some experts wondered if the dividing line between the two types of criminals is so clear.

An example of this is a work cited in the article, in which it is suggested that personal grievances and stressors often play a key role in radicalizing the individual and planning the terrorist attack (which is something typical of the mass murderers, according to the existing literature). On the other hand, it is found that the presence of political impulses and social factors is also becoming a determining motivation in school shootings recently (this would be a typical factor for lone terrorists).

That is why some experts have concluded that it would be more useful to discuss mass murderer violence and terrorist attacks under a common framework of demonstrative violence than to assign them to such exclusive classes of violence.

Given the possibility of being able to consider both types of crime as one, or as very similar crimes, authors decided to carry out a study. In it, they collect information from open sources on the internet, limiting themselves to events after 1990 to be as actual as possible.

The obtained results provide us with interesting information. For example, men largely dominate both types of crime. There was also little difference in marital status at the time of the crime: most of them were single (37% and 43%).

Lone terrorists were significantly more educated than mass murderers. Two-thirds of terrorists, compared to only 24% of mass murderers, received some kind of college education.

Lone terrorists were much more likely to have military experience, criminal convictions, change addresses before their attack, live alone, be socially isolated, show increased anger, and possess weapons.

Mass murderers were more likely to have a history of substance abuse, to experience degradation or abuse by others on a regular basis or in the previous moments to the attack, to have relationship problems with other people, to experience specific and chronic stress, and to have some type of relationship or history with the place of the event.

Regarding mental disorders, there were no significant differences (39% and 41%). Nor were there any in relation to warning about the attack before it happened (26% and 19%).

Overall, authors consider the idea that lone terrorists and mass murderers are not that different from each other. There are more things that unite them than things that separate them.

More than 180 variables were studied, and in none of them significant differences were observed. For the most part, they are similar people, with similar mobilization pathways, who commit violent acts that do not differ too much, but with slightly different motivational structures.

Experts argue that, instead of focusing on criminal typologies to talk about these people, it could be more useful to see the degree of loneliness they exhibited, the external directives that the offender received and the depth of the political motivations of him/her, if any.

This finding may have important implications for professionals in this field. For example, after a public mass murder, not claimed by any terrorist organization, investigators should not rule out the possibility that the offender was politically or religiously motivated.

Where authors see consistent differences between the two types of criminals is in the flights. Authors believe that this has to do with the support that offenders receive. Ideologies naturally have more followers than personal grievances. In other words, where there is a large presence of people who share the same ideology, there is a greater probability that some form of flight will occur.

In conclusion, results demonstrate that many of the major potential risk factors are equally common among lone terrorists and mass murderers. This is especially important for crime prevention policies and protocols, and therefore for criminology, which could consider these findings from now on for the study of these crime typologies.

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Crime

Where should police forces target their residential burglary reduction efforts? Forensic Science Club

By 6 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Where should pólice forces target their residential burglary reduction efforts? Using official victimisation data to predict burglary incidences at the neighbourhood level”, by Hunter, J.; Ward, B.; Tseloni, A. and Pease, K. (2021), in which authors expose some interesting data about risk and protection factors when it comes about suffering residential burglary.

Residential burglary is one of the crimes against which we feel most powerless and helpless. At home we are comfortable and protected, and if someone enters to rob us, we feel a huge violation of our privacy, our space and our rights.

Criminology has provided analysis tools to police forces that have been implementing for some years and are related to this matter.

Specifically, we refer to the analysis of the spatial concentration of crime. This type of analysis is usually done with the called “hot spots maps”. These hot spots are places where the rate of any type of crime is higher than in other ones, and thus, they require special attention.

The idea is that these crime concentration maps offer the police forces the opportunity to focus their interventions in these critical areas, consequently reducing crime incidence.

Although this method has sometimes been useful, it is true that the simple designation of an area as a hot spot, based on the number of crimes recorded by police, neglects much data on the burglaries’ dynamics.

This data includes repeat victimization, near-repeat victimization, an anticipatory diffusion of benefits.

Authors of this paper lean on this point, precisely. They consider that reactive or proactive police resource allocation models predicated simply upon hot spot analysis miss crucial aspects. They would be forgetting the importance of the characteristics of people, homes and neighborhoods.

Considering that this type of crime has a strong component of victimization for the people who suffer it, authors of the study wonder whether it is possible to apply victimology to shed light on it and improve its prevention.

Some of the concepts could probably be the behavior of the residents, the environment of the area, the exact place where the house is or the motivation of the thieves.

In this paper, authors try to create and describe burglary prediction maps, to correct the absence of consideration of factors that they consider important and forgotten by police forces.

The places represented on the maps and, therefore, the studied ones, are England and Wales.

The used data is compiled from a nationwide survey on crime and experiences related to it. It was carried out by the ONS (Office for National Statistics in UK. Information came from more than 130,000 family units.

Obtained results are very interesting and could be used effectively to prevent this type of crime. The opportunity structures that shape the risk of burglary victimization are influenced, as we have already discussed, by many factors.

Some of them are the time and day of the week, property type, the nature of the built environment and visual clues afforded to offenders, street networks and spatial interactions, offenders’ journey to crime, the behavioral decisions of offenders, as well as police responses to reducing burglary, such as hot spot policing.

Based on the crime surveys, the authors try to identify the types of homes that are most vulnerable to burglary and the sociodemographic profile of the areas in which they are.

Factors that seem to promote the commission of burglaries include, on one hand, individual characteristics. For example, it appears that Asian people are most at risk in the studied area.

It should also be considered how is the people that live in the household and their circumstances. Those most at risk are people over 65 who live alone, single-parent families or those who live in social rents.

Having more than three cars or not having any would also attract the attention of thieves, as well as having some disease, especially the limiting ones. The same would happen with having moved in the last year or living in areas with difficult access to the service sector.

On the contrary, households whose head is either female or black, who live in semi-detached houses or flats, who own a single car, in inner-city areas, and neighborhoods with less income deprivation enjoy less expected burglaries compared to others.

In addition, important factors that criminology points out about opportunity play a role. For instance, the victim’s physical health status, perceived vulnerabilities (such as the victim’s difficulties communicating with others), and even perceived potential immunity for thieves.

With all these data, authors generate a map that they consider very useful for the police forces to use when allocating resources to prevent this type of crime.

There are limitations in this study, such as not having all the desired information from the surveys, like if there is any security device in these houses and, if there is, which is its type.

Future research should focus on correcting these limitations and, furthermore, authors suggest that the same could be done for other types of crimes, since very useful information could be obtained.

If you are intrigued by understanding criminal minds and helping solve cases from a scientific approach, the Master in Criminal Profiling is for you. With our online modality, you can study from the comfort of your home and earn a degree from Evidentia University, a licensed university in the United States.

The U.S. educational system is considered one of the most prestigious in the world, and this accreditation guarantees a high-quality education. Start today from just $208 a month and take a decisive step towards your future!

Do you want to take your passion for forensic science to the next level? With the Master in Criminal Profiling, you will not only study criminology and criminal profiling online, but also earn a degree from a licensed university in the United States.

Are you passionate about forensic science? If you can see yourself investigating crime scenes, understanding the criminal mind, and collaborating on real-life cases, don’t miss the opportunity to become an expert. Our Master in Criminal Profiling is 100% online, giving you the flexibility to study from anywhere.

Additionally, you will earn a degree from Evidentia University, a licensed university in the United States, which has one of the most prestigious educational systems in the world. This ensures that the education is of high quality and meets international standards. All of this from just $208 a month!

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Women in prison and mental health: which are their experiences? Forensic Science Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Women’s experiences of prison-based mental healthcare: a systematic review of qualitative literature”, by Bright, A. M.; Higgins, A. and Grealish, A. (2022), in which authors carry out an investigation on recent and existing literature about women in prison and their experiences regarding mental health to know if the treatments and therapies they follow are effective. 

Since 2000, the number of women in prison has increased by around 53% worldwide, with an approximate population of 714,000 inmates. 

Internationally, there are increasing trends, although there are some exceptions. For example, in the United States a 700% increase in women in prison since 1980 has been seen, but Australia saw a 10% reduction between 2019 and 202. 

On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, an estimated 73% of women serving sentences of 12 months or less are reconvicted for another offense within a year of release. 

This is consistent with the position of many experts on short prison sentences: they are less effective in achieving rehabilitation than other sentences, such as community work.

Also in the UK, women experience particular difficulties once they enter prison as there are only 12 women’s facilities, so they are often forced to be a long way from their family and loved ones. 

Considering all this, it is not surprising for authors that the percentage of women with mental health problems is so high in the prison context: approximately 80% suffer from them. 

Women in prison are 5 times more likely to experience mental health problems than women in the general population. The most prevalent conditions are substance abuse (30-60%), alcohol addiction (10-24%), post-traumatic stress disorder (21.1%) and major depression (3.9-14.1%).

In addition, women in prison are up to 20 times more likely to commit suicide and, within one year of release, 36 times more likely to commit suicide compared to the rest of the population. 

In recent years, fortunately, there has been an increased demand for mental health care for women in prisons, calling for the revision of existing policies and services to meet the needs of women in this context. 

Authors aimed, in this study, to review existing literature on women serving custodial sentences in prison in order to identify their mental health conditions and to understand their experiences more deeply. They used a total of 7 studies, as recent as possible.

Authors obtained interesting conclusions, such as that women in prison are more likely to participate in mental health treatment programs compared to men in prison; however, they are less likely to be offered this possibility, or, in other words, to have access to treatment programs.

On the other hand, and taking into account that a more or less stable mental health is fundamental for their reintegration, rehabilitation once released from prison is seen as an elusive goal. 

Recovery in this context is a concept in which many factors are involved, but, in essence, it refers to people achieving a new meaning, a new purpose for their lives. 

In a 2011 study by Leamy and colleagues, 5 essential factors for recovery were identified: connection, hope, identity, meaningful role, and empowerment. It is therefore vital that women are empowered, for example, to be able to manage their own mental health while in prison and, thus, contribute to their recovery and rehabilitation. This can -and should- be supported by strength and skills development activities, and also by increasing self-esteem and self-efficacy. 

As a result of being in prison, a person loses the fundamental right to freedom; however, sometimes they also lose the right to privacy. In 5 of the 7 studies in the article, it appears that some prison workers were aware of requests from inmates for psychological treatment, where inmates talked about why they were requesting this care. This, of course, negatively affected the women’s mental well-being.

On the other hand, considering that female inmates are a particularly vulnerable population, it is of concern that in most studies they mentioned having difficulties with prison staff. They reported that these people seemed insensitive to their needs, contributing to the deterioration of the psychological well-being of the women in the center. 

Authors believe that providing mental health education to prison staff can help improve their understanding of how mental health problems manifest themselves and their specific vulnerabilities. It would also help them develop their empathy for women prisoners. 

In addition, there is a clear need to devote more effort and resources to research in this context, both to improve policy and service delivery, and to enable the voices of women in prison to be heard.

If you want to know more about the criminal mind, criminal profiling, and forensic science, don’t miss our Master of Science in Criminal Profiling or our Master of Science in Anti-Fraud Behavioral Analysis

Do you want to take your passion for forensic science to the next level? With the Master in Criminal Profiling, you will not only study criminology and criminal profiling online, but also earn a degree from a licensed university in the United States.

The U.S. education system is known for being one of the most respected and demanding in the world, and Evidentia University meets all required standards, ensuring a prestigious education. Study from just $208 a month and advance towards an exciting forensic career!

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Criminology

General characteristics of serial murders in nursing homes and hospitals. Forensic Science Club

By 4 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Serial murder in medical clinics and care homes”, by Beine, K. H. (2022), in which the author compiles information about serial murders in nursing homes and hospitals carried out by nurses in the Germany, Austria and Switzerland context. 

We have seen in recent years a number of murders in clinics and nursing homes coming to light in courts around the world. 

Due to the darkness and lack of knowledge surrounding these types of crimes, we should take a look at the trials for the cases already uncovered and see if they yield clues to help in the prevention of the phenomenon, avoiding future cases. 

In addition, early identification, by co-workers, of those at risk of committing these crimes is crucial for patient safety. However, it appears that this detection is often blocked by the fact that colleagues and managers consider it “impossible” for such behavior to take place in their institutions.

In German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria and Switzerland), a total of 12 such serial murders have been prosecuted. Worldwide, 57 have been documented. 

This study was limited to murders committed in Germany, Austria and Switzerland until February 2022. The author examined victim characteristics, crime scenes, types of murder, perpetrators and their motivations, among other points of interest. 

There were a total of 205 confirmed victims ranging in age from 31 to 96 years. 

In some cases of homicides in residences and hospitals it is not possible to confirm that some victims were murdered. This happens because there are long periods of time between the crime and the investigation. Therefore, it is possible that the actual number of victims is much higher. 

Only in a few cases the victims were in a process of irreversible death. On the other hand, there were others who were recovering and were even about to be discharged. 

In 8 crime scenes, important negligent handling of drugs was discovered. In most cases drugs considered lethal agents were used, such as insulin, sedatives and muscle relaxants, anesthetics, antiarrhythmics or potassium chloride, among others.

It is important to know that post-mortem examinations were not performed thoroughly or competently at these crime scenes, so it is possible that the reckless use of drugs occurred more frequently than could be proven. 

In addition, in several cases extensive bruising and visible puncture marks went overlooked. 

In all serial murders it was clear that co-workers had noticed strange behavior on the part of the accused. This behavior was even reported to bosses and managers.

The 17 perpetrators convicted in the 12 cases were 53% women. The remaining 47% were men. Their average age was between 33 and 34 years. All of them were nursing professionals. Most of them lived alone and 5 of them were prohibited from practicing their profession.

In terms of psychological characteristics, they were introverted persons, with a development of distant and cold interpersonal relationships, a reserved and tense personality, existence of denigrating comments and harsh language, as well as aggressive outbursts. 

Murderers were found to have higher than average insecurity and narcissistic personality traits. They perceived insecurity as a weakness incompatible with their image and, therefore, concealed and repressed it. 

In all cases there was no single determining motive for committing the crime, but rather unique combinations. For example: the quest for power, wanting attention from others or a supposed compassion for the victims. 

Due to the complexity of these types of cases, a thorough investigation is required to increase the effectiveness of prevention. 

In addition, there is a need for more reciprocal attention among coworkers, detailed information about each patient, teamwork and good communication.

Efforts to improve prevention efforts are imperative precisely because we know so little about the dark undercurrents of homicides in hospitals and nursing homes. 

In short, the author urgently calls for experts in the mind of the killer to get to work to curb the spread of this criminal phenomenon.

If you want to know more about the criminal mind, criminal profiling, and forensic science, don’t miss our Master of Science in Criminal Profiling or our Master of Science in Anti-Fraud Behavioral Analysis

If you are intrigued by understanding criminal minds and helping solve cases from a scientific approach, the Master in Criminal Profiling is for you. With our online modality, you can study from the comfort of your home and earn a degree from Evidentia University, a licensed university in the United States.

The U.S. educational system is considered one of the most prestigious in the world, and this accreditation guarantees a high-quality education. Start today from just $208 a month and take a decisive step towards your future!

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Criminology

What is being commented on social networks about sexual assaults? Forensic Sciences Club

By 5 Mins Read

Friends of the Forensic Science Club, this week we present the paper “Masochist or Murderer? A Discourse Analytic Study Exploring Social Constructions of Sexually Violent Male Perpetrators, Female Victims-Survivors and the Rough Sex Defense on Twitter”, by Sowersby, C. J.; Erskine-Shaw, M. and Willmott, D. (2022), in which authors carry out an analysis of Twitter publications in which people talk about sexuality, violence, victims and gender, bearing in mind that, nowadays, social networks help to shape social collective thinking. 

We have already mentioned on several occasions that sexual violence is one of the major problems facing modern society. Crime statistics show the increasing prevalence of this type of violence around the world. Since 2014, countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand or Ireland have experienced increases in sex crimes recorded by police, while statistics in the United States reveal the same trend since 2013. 

These data are disconcerting, although one of the explanations proposed for them is that rates have increased due to a greater awareness of abuse cases, among other reasons, due to the emergence of awareness and sensitization campaigns, as well as support for victims gender and sexual violence, such as the #MeToo movement. 

It may also be due to an improvement in police training to deal with these types of cases, along with a greater willingness to investigate these allegations.

On the other hand, while it is recognized that both men and women experience sexual violence, the figures for reported crimes stand out for a gender gap, as, in general, men are the perpetrators of these crimes and women, the victims. 

In England and Wales, data reveal that 98% of those prosecuted for serious sexual offenses are men and women represent the 84% of the victims. 

Authors mention that there may be an unknown number of male victims who do not come to light because of the stigma that still surrounds male sexual victimization, and because of societal expectations around the male gender role. 

Interestingly, along with concerns about the prevalence of abuse against women, there is recent media coverage of numerous high-profile sexual crimes, which has brought the issue of women’s safety into the public consciousness. 

This has led to media coverage that reaches social networks, creating debates and generating opinions that are made public. 

And, despite the importance of the phenomenon surrounding sexual violence, there is very little research dedicated to exploring public attitudes toward it and relating them, in turn, to “rough sex”. 

And why rough sex? Research places particular emphasis on distinguishing between rough sex and sexual violence because the line between the two concepts is very thin. 

This type of sexuality, while involving a certain degree of force or aggression, has consent at its core. Violent fetishism, bodily harm, humiliation, domination or submission, are some of the experiences that can be lived by those who practice this type of sex safely, due to its dangerousness, which can be more or less extreme. 

To distinguish between sexual violence and violent sex, the important thing is, as we have said, consent. However, there are times when consent is precarious, especially in situations of trauma or with an abuse background. 

The research also mentions pornography, with an increasing success of the most violent categories, which contributes to blurring the differences between rough sex and actual rape or sexual assault. 

On the other hand, and returning to the media influence of social networks on collective thinking, authors mention the concept of “slut-shaming”, which is often used to blame the victims of sexual violence, especially if they are women. Slut-shaming, for example, uses the fact that a woman has been drinking alcohol or has a very active sex life as an “excuse” for the sexual assault experienced. This highlights the need for research on all of the above data, with special emphasis on gender roles and the influence of the hard sex on the perception of sexual violence. 

To do this, authors search inside of Twitter, which is one of the most popular social networks today. 

They found that the dichotomy “virgin-whore” often appears to talk about women, which categorizes them in an extreme way based on their sexual preferences and constructs negative and defamatory language. For example, those women who do not like rough sex, are often labeled as “saints” or “boring,” the opposite for those who do, who are insulted and humiliated. This is very interesting, above all, because it contributes to the blaming of the victims of sexual violence. 

On the other hand, rough sex is increasingly legitimized as a normative sexuality, downplaying its potential dangerousness. 

The conceptions associated with gender roles are also extreme, not only in the case of women, but also in the case of men, making it seem that it is in their biological nature to be aggressive and hypersexual beings. 

In short, efforts, resources and research are needed to better understand the phenomenon of social networks and how they shape public opinion. Moreover, given the magnitude of the problem of sexual violence, understanding it, preventing it and acting appropriately with the victims is an absolute priority.

If you want to know more about the criminal mind, criminal profiling, and forensic science, don’t miss our Master of Science in Criminal Profiling or our Master of Science in Anti-Fraud Behavioral Analysis

Criminal analysis and forensic psychology are essential in solving complex cases. If you want to become a true specialist in this field, we invite you to explore our Master in Criminal Profiling. This online program allows you to learn from anywhere and earn a degree from Evidentia University, a licensed university in the United States.

This guarantees that your education meets the highest quality standards of the U.S. education system, recognized worldwide for its excellence. Enroll today and study from just $208 a month!

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Forensic Science Club